2025 DLG Literature Review

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Literature Summary
3. Research Findings
4. Recommendations

Introduction

The 2022 literature review synthesized existing research on digital and distance learning in adult education. That review applied defined inclusion parameters, focusing on peer-reviewed studies and reputable non-corporate sources published since 2002 that addressed digital and distance learning for adult and nontraditional learners. The findings informed the development of the 2022 California Adult Education Digital Learning Guidance.

Research Methods (2025 Update)

The 2025 review followed the same overall approach but expanded the scope in response to changes in the field. Since 2022, emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence have become central to discussions of digital learning, yet the body of peer-reviewed research specific to adult education remains limited. To provide a more informed and evidence-based overview, the updated review incorporated not only scholarly journal articles but also reports and guidance from government agencies, professional associations, and educational research nonprofits. This broader set of sources allowed the review to capture both the established research base and the rapidly developing policy and practice context.

Updated Inclusion Criteria (2025)

To be included in the 2025 literature review, sources were required to:

• be peer-reviewed (scholarly journal articles) or published by a reputable non-corporate organization such as an educational research nonprofit, professional association, or government agency;
• be published in 2002 or later;
• focus on digital learning, distance education, digital literacy, or digital skills;
• address adult education or nontraditional learners in higher education, with relevance for workforce and lifelong learning contexts;
• use an adult learning or andragogical lens where applicable, or provide findings transferable to adult education practice;
• support the aims of the Guidance.

Literature Summary

Article	Overview	Findings
Cavanaugh, Humphrey, & Pullen, 2024	Study of an AI model that scores a rubric-based assignment in an online literacy micro-credential for educators. Tested across two pilot terms to check agreement with instructor scoring, learner outcomes, and cost.	AI and instructor agreement improved from about 71% to 82% after model refinements. Learner mastery was equal or higher with AI scoring compared to traditional sections. Estimated grading time and costs decreased by roughly one third. These results point to a practical option for scaling micro-credential review while keeping instructor oversight for quality.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology, 2023	National report examining opportunities and challenges of integrating artificial intelligence into teaching and learning. Provides background on current AI uses, potential risks, and recommendations for education stakeholders.	AI tools are already being used for tutoring, feedback, and administrative tasks, but raise questions of bias, transparency, and data privacy. The report highlights the need for educator training to guide responsible use and ensure AI complements rather than replaces human teaching. For adult education, the findings suggest that AI could expand instructional support and reduce workload, but programs will need clear policies, professional development, and attention to equity so that AI benefits all learners.
Laupichler, Aster, Schirch, & Raupach, 2022	Review of 30 studies on artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in higher and adult education, drawn from 902 initial records across multiple databases. The review examined definitions, course models, competencies, and research trends.	Research in AI literacy is recent and uneven, with most studies published after 2020. Core competencies commonly include understanding AI concepts, evaluating AI systems, using AI in practice, and considering ethics. Definitions vary, with some authors emphasizing programming and others focusing on critical reflection and applied use. Courses often combine short modules, online materials, and hands-on projects. For adult learners, findings underscore the need for accessible, non-technical AI literacy opportunities that highlight everyday applications and ethical considerations, rather than advanced coding.
White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2022	A national framework outlining principles for the design and use of automated systems. Developed through research, public engagement, and case studies in sectors including employment, education, health, and housing.	Identifies five key protections: safe and effective systems, protections from algorithmic discrimination, data privacy, notice and explanation, and human alternatives. Highlights how unchecked AI can reinforce bias, restrict opportunities, or create errors without recourse. For adult education, these principles point to the need for transparency, fairness, and clear fallback options when digital systems are used in instruction, assessment, or learner services.
Condon, Chattin, Green, Goodman, & Cacicio, 2025	National study conducted by the Adult Literacy and Learning Impact Network (ALL IN) and FTI Consulting, based on surveys and focus groups with 2,000 adults with low literacy across the U.S. Most participants were eligible for, but not enrolled in, adult education programs.	80% of respondents did not know about adult education programs in their community, yet 84% expressed interest once informed. Perceived cost was the greatest barrier, despite most programs being free or low-cost. Learners reported wanting flexible formats, with strong preference for hybrid or online options, small group classes, and supportive teachers. Confidence, communication skills, and public speaking were top motivations for enrolling. Findings highlight persistent gaps in awareness and access, along with opportunities to design more visible, learner-centered, and flexible programs.
Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI, 2025	Annual AI Index report chapter focused on the state of computer science (CS) and AI education in the U.S. and globally. Draws on surveys, policy scans, and enrollment data from Code.org, NCES, OECD, and other sources.	Access to CS courses in U.S. high schools has grown from 35% in 2018 to 60% in 2024, but participation still varies by geography, income, and race/ethnicity. Only about half of U.S. CS teachers feel equipped to teach AI, despite broad agreement that it should be included. Internationally, two-thirds of countries now offer or plan to offer CS, but access remains limited in Africa due to infrastructure barriers. Postsecondary data show rapid increases in AI-related master’s degrees and new undergraduate programs, though women and some racial/ethnic groups remain underrepresented. The report underscores the need for professional development, equitable access, and clear guidance as AI becomes integrated into education systems.
van den Berg & du Plessis, 2023	Qualitative study using document analysis to explore ChatGPT’s role in lesson planning, critical thinking, and openness in teacher education. Examines sample lesson plans, worksheets, and presentations generated by ChatGPT and discusses implications for teacher training.	ChatGPT can generate basic lesson plans, worksheets, and presentations that save time and provide accessible starting points. Teachers reported that AI-produced plans offer structure but require adaptation, contextualization, and critical review for accuracy and creativity. The study highlights potential for AI to broaden access to resources and foster reflective practice, while also noting risks of bias, misinformation, plagiarism, and overreliance. Findings suggest value in using AI outputs as a framework for teacher learning, collaboration, and critical evaluation rather than as finished products.
Atlas, 2023	Guidebook describing practical uses of ChatGPT in higher education and professional learning. Reviews opportunities, challenges, and examples of how conversational AI can be applied to instruction, assessment, and workforce development.	ChatGPT can assist with tasks such as summarizing texts, creating quizzes, generating lesson plans, and simulating dialogue. Reported benefits include efficiency in grading, feedback, and content creation, along with potential support for accessibility. Risks include factual errors, bias, plagiarism, and overreliance. The guide stresses that AI should supplement rather than replace human instruction and highlights the need for policies and training to ensure responsible use.
Cacicio & Riggs, 2023	Commentary in Adult Literacy Education exploring how ChatGPT can support adult educators by automating tasks and enabling personalized instruction. Draws on examples from classroom practice and broader debates in K–12, higher education, and workforce contexts.	ChatGPT can assist educators by generating lesson materials, simulating workplace scenarios, and supporting assessment design, freeing time for interaction and feedback. Potential uses include group-specific practice activities, debate prompts, and contextualized vocabulary tasks. Risks include bias, misinformation, data privacy issues, and reading-level mismatches. Findings suggest that integrating ChatGPT into instruction can enhance digital resilience, information literacy, and workforce readiness when paired with critical evaluation and clear guidance.
Meccawy, 2022	Non-systematic review of XR (AR, VR, MR) in education, outlining development cycles, authoring approaches, and available tools and platforms. Provides a roadmap for educators to create or adopt XR learning environments, with attention to technical, financial, and pedagogical considerations.	XR technologies can enhance engagement and offer authentic learning opportunities, but adoption is slowed by high costs, technical demands, and limited instructional design resources. Teachers face barriers in creating or adapting XR content without advanced skills. Options range from full programming platforms (Unity, Unreal) to minimal-code authoring tools (PlugXR, CoSpaces) and subscription-based XR platforms (ClassVR, zSpace, VictoryXR). For adult education, findings suggest that XR may expand access to immersive learning if solutions are affordable, easy to use, and aligned with learning objectives.
Hauge, Durgunoğlu, & Stewart, 2024	Study of a digital literacy component within the CILIA-T curriculum, piloted with 29 English learners in U.S. adult education classes. Learners completed pre- and post-tests, a lesson on internet use, and surveys; teachers also provided feedback.	Post-test scores improved significantly, with learners answering more items correctly, finishing faster, and rating the test easier after instruction. Both teachers and students described the lesson as clear, relevant, and useful. Higher education levels, prior internet use, and topic familiarity correlated with stronger outcomes, but all learners showed progress. The results suggest explicit digital literacy instruction, even in short lessons, builds foundational skills and confidence for English learners in adult education.
Digital Promise, 2022	Report examining the role of micro-credentials in advancing economic opportunity in rural U.S. communities. Draws on educator and employer interviews, program case studies, and analysis of workforce needs.	Micro-credentials can validate skills that may not be captured by traditional degrees, providing rural learners with portable evidence of competencies. Educators noted they support personalized professional development, while employers valued verified skills but stressed the need for awareness and recognition. Barriers include limited digital infrastructure, lack of employer familiarity, and uneven access to technology. Findings highlight that when supported with guidance and connectivity, micro-credentials can expand pathways to employment and learning in underserved regions.
Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy & Digital Promise, 2022	Resource guide synthesizing research and practice on digital literacy instruction for adults. Provides frameworks, tools, and program models to help educators support learners’ digital skill development.	Digital literacy is now considered foundational for workforce, civic, and personal participation. Barriers include limited broadband, device access, and starting skill levels. Motivation is strongly linked to practical benefits such as employment, education, and family support. The guide highlights strategies like embedding digital skills in authentic tasks, using mobile-friendly tools, and offering flexible, learner-centered approaches.
JFF, World Education, & Safal Partners, 2022	National landscape scan funded by OCTAE to identify resources, frameworks, and practices for developing adult learners’ digital literacy and resilience. Methods included literature review, practitioner surveys, learner focus groups, and expert interviews.	The scan emphasized digital resilience, defined as confidence and adaptability in navigating evolving technologies, as a critical goal beyond discrete skills. Barriers remain in broadband access, devices, and digital inclusion, with disproportionate impacts on communities of color and low-income learners. Effective practices include contextualized instruction, digital navigators, peer support, and flexible delivery models such as remote learning and learning circles. Professional development for instructors is limited, with strong need for training in both digital skills and integration into instruction. Findings highlight gaps in assessment, need for consistent frameworks, and opportunities for credentialing through badges and certificates.
Darling-Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner, 2017	Report synthesizing 35 methodologically rigorous studies on professional development that improves teacher practice and student learning. Identifies common features across effective models, with examples from large-scale programs.	Effective PD shares seven key features: content focus, active learning, collaboration, models of practice, coaching and expert support, feedback and reflection, and sustained duration. Programs combining several of these elements showed the strongest outcomes. Although based on K–12, these principles translate to adult education by underscoring the value of job-embedded, collaborative, and ongoing PD for integrating digital tools and strategies.
Fong, Janzow, & Peck, 2016	Survey and interview-based study of U.S. employers and employees on awareness, value, and adoption of digital badges and micro-credentials. Published by the University Professional and Continuing Education Association (UPCEA) and Pearson.	Employers reported limited familiarity with digital badges but expressed interest when benefits were explained, especially for verifying specific, job-relevant skills. Employees were generally more aware and positive, seeing badges as a way to document skills not reflected in formal degrees. Both groups stressed the importance of recognition by industry and trusted institutions. Findings suggest that micro-credentials hold potential to support career advancement and hiring decisions if awareness grows and systems for verification and portability are established.
Gardner, Maietta, Gardner, & Perkins, 2022	Survey of 7,861 adult students from eight Midwestern higher education institutions, examining demographic, educational, and motivational factors influencing preferences for fully online, hybrid, or in-person programs.	Over half of respondents preferred in-person classes, with 30% selecting hybrid and 17% fully online. Adults with children, full-time work, or higher prior education were more likely to enroll online. Women were significantly more likely than men to choose online or hybrid options. Younger adults preferred in-person formats, while those motivated by career advancement or personal fulfillment leaned toward online study. Findings highlight how life circumstances and motivations shape enrollment choices, suggesting that flexible program design supports persistence and completion for adult learners.
California Community Colleges Board of Governors, 2024	Systemwide report examining the implications of generative AI for teaching, learning, workforce development, and institutional policy. Based on statewide surveys, stakeholder engagement, and demonstration projects aligned with Vision 2030.	Faculty and staff expressed both optimism and concern, noting opportunities for efficiency and personalization alongside risks of bias and academic integrity issues. Professional development and infrastructure were identified as essential for safe and equitable AI adoption. Key principles include ethical use, transparency, human oversight, and equity. AI tools can streamline routine tasks, expand adaptive learning, and support student advising, but require clear policies, continuous training, and partnerships with industry to prevent widening divides. Findings suggest AI can enhance instruction and workforce preparation when paired with human-centered safeguards.
U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2023	Briefing report from GAO’s Science, Technology Assessment, and Analytics team explaining generative AI technologies, applications, opportunities, challenges, and policy considerations.	Generative AI can rapidly summarize information, automate routine tasks, and increase productivity across sectors including education and workforce training. Risks include misinformation, bias, privacy concerns, and potential misuse for harmful purposes. Oversight challenges stem from lack of transparency in training data and model operations. The report highlights the need for responsible use guidelines, stronger privacy protections, and workforce training in AI literacy to ensure benefits are equitably shared.
Simpson, Vanek, & Rosen, 2022	Practical guide adapting the HyFlex model, originally developed in higher education, for adult foundational education settings. Draws on research, case studies, and pilot implementations to provide design and implementation strategies.	HyFlex offers learners choice in attending class in person, online synchronously, or asynchronously, with all modes designed to achieve the same outcomes. Findings emphasize the importance of planning for technology access, faculty preparation, and learner support to ensure equity across modes. Early implementations suggest HyFlex can expand access and flexibility for adults balancing work, family, and education, but require significant instructional design and institutional support.
Patterson, 2022	Analysis of U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014/2017 data to investigate digital literacy skills and use among 1,130 adults with self-reported learning disabilities compared with 10,820 adults without LD. Methods included descriptive and predictive analyses of assessed skills, skill use at home and work, and subgroup characteristics.	Adults with LD had lower mean digital literacy scores than peers without LD, though both groups averaged at Level 1 proficiency. Using digital literacy skills at home or work significantly predicted higher skill levels, supporting practice engagement theory. Employed adults with LD used digital skills more often than those outside the workforce, but less frequently than employed adults without LD. Many adults with LD expressed interest in further training but reported barriers such as cost and competing responsibilities. Findings point to the importance of embedding digital literacy practice in daily tasks and offering accessible, flexible pathways to build both skills and confidence.
Lee, Kumar, & Zhao, 2023	Preprint study analyzing lesson plans produced by AI-powered generators to examine underlying pedagogical assumptions and biases. Compared outputs across multiple platforms and reviewed for alignment with evidence-based instructional practices.	Results showed AI-generated lesson plans frequently relied on traditional, teacher-centered models and often overlooked culturally responsive or learner-centered approaches. Biases reflected limitations of training data and default assumptions about teaching. While AI tools provided efficiency in generating structured content, findings stress the importance of educator review and adaptation. For adult education, this highlights both the potential of AI to save time and the risk of reinforcing narrow pedagogical models unless outputs are critically evaluated and customized.
Reder, Gauly, & Lechner, 2020	Longitudinal study using German PIAAC-Longitudinal data (2012–2015) to test Practice Engagement Theory (PET), which posits that literacy and numeracy skills develop through frequent engagement in related everyday practices. Sample included 2,989 adults aged 16–65.	Engagement in reading predicted literacy growth, while engagement in math predicted numeracy growth. Effects were modest but significant, showing about five scale points of proficiency gain over three years per standard deviation of practice engagement. Age negatively predicted gains, while more years of formal education supported growth. Findings provide strong evidence that everyday practice drives proficiency development, suggesting adult education should embed literacy and numeracy in meaningful, authentic activities to strengthen long-term skill growth.
National Skills Coalition, 2024	Nationwide poll of 1,000 registered voters conducted in March 2024 to assess public views on digital skill needs, barriers, and policy solutions. Data analyzed by age, race/ethnicity, and political affiliation.	Ninety-two percent of jobs now require digital skills, but one-third of workers lack foundational competencies. Sixty-three percent of respondents said they would pursue training if offered, and 64% identified lack of access to training programs as a major barrier. Over 70% believe training access is critical in industries such as construction, healthcare, and manufacturing. An overwhelming 90% of voters support policies that guarantee lifelong digital skills training. Findings reinforce widespread demand and public support for accessible digital upskilling opportunities across demographics and industries.
Rabbitt, Finegan, & Kellogg, 2019	Literature review by The Learning Accelerator analyzing research on effective online professional learning for teachers. Synthesizes studies across adult learning, instructional design, and digital platforms to develop a framework of six “quality drivers.”	Effective online professional learning is most successful when platforms and courses provide rigorous, relevant content; active and mastery-based learning; and opportunities for connection and personalization. Platform quality and ease of use are essential to reduce cognitive load and support persistence. Research shows adult learners in online and blended environments often perform as well as or better than those in face-to-face contexts, provided design addresses engagement, feedback, and equity. Findings emphasize tailoring online PD to teachers’ professional needs, contexts, and competing responsibilities.
Riggs & Cherewka, 2024	Article in Theory to Practice summarizing research and practice on digital literacy among immigrant families, with implications for family literacy program design. Uses an asset-based approach to highlight how families engage with technology in everyday contexts.	Immigrant families face persistent inequities in broadband, devices, and skills access, but also demonstrate diverse digital literacy practices. These include sustaining transnational connections, sharing cultural and linguistic knowledge, engaging in intergenerational learning, and applying cultural perspectives to navigate technology. Findings stress the need for family literacy programs to build on existing skills, create opportunities for critical digital engagement, and design for equity. Programs that leverage everyday practices such as WhatsApp use, multilingual communication, and digital storytelling can promote resilience and inclusion.
Riggs, 2022	Practitioner article introducing the Digital Literacy Action Plan (DLAP), an instructional strategy developed in adult ESL classrooms to differentiate instruction and increase learner agency. Draws on classroom practice, digital literacy frameworks, and equity-focused research.	The DLAP guides learners to set personal digital goals, plan steps, use resources, and reflect on progress. It emphasizes learner choice, relevance, and integration of digital skills into life, work, and education goals. Findings highlight that differentiation and agency can address wide variation in learner skills and experiences. The approach promotes digital equity by building confidence, embedding authentic practice, and preparing learners for lifelong digital learning.
Vanek, Maddrell, Goumas, & Riggs, 2023	Article in Theory to Practice describing the EdTech Maker Space model, a service-learning approach to professional development in adult education. Based on federally funded initiatives, the model engages teachers in creating and curating open digital resources while developing their own edtech skills.	The EdTech Maker Space combines principles of situated learning, problem-based learning, and communities of practice. Teachers reported gains in technology integration skills, collaboration, and resource design capacity. Service-learning activities produced free instructional resources such as the Digital Skills Library and Digital Skills Glossary. Findings suggest this approach addresses persistent PD gaps by linking active learning with the creation of high-quality, reusable digital resources for adult educators and learners.
Vanek, 2022	Practitioner article in Adult Literacy Education analyzing how the pandemic reshaped teacher roles in adult education, particularly around technology integration and instructional design. Discusses the use of frameworks such as TPACK, SAMR, and Triple E to guide teachers’ decision-making.	The shift to remote instruction required teachers to act as instructional designers, often without adequate preparation. Frameworks like TPACK, SAMR, and Triple E can scaffold technology integration decisions, helping teachers reflect on alignment, activity impact, and learner engagement. Findings emphasize that structured reflection, peer collaboration, and formative evaluation build teacher confidence and capacity over time. This supports the development of pedagogical design capacity, enabling more effective and sustainable use of digital resources in adult education.
Bergson-Shilcocl., 2020	National analysis of U.S. workers’ digital literacy using PIAAC data. Examines how uneven digital skills affect workers across industries and occupations, and outlines implications for economic mobility, business competitiveness, and policy design.	Nearly one-third of workers have limited or no digital skills, including many whose jobs require moderate computer use. Skill gaps cut across sectors, with the highest concentrations in construction, transportation, manufacturing, retail, and service roles. Workers with low skills earn less, receive less employer training, and often supervise others, amplifying the impact of these gaps. Significant disparities appear by race, education level, immigrant status, and broadband access. The report highlights the need for integrated digital skills instruction, employer partnerships, and public investment to support a digitally resilient workforce.
Knowles, 1980	Foundational text outlining andragogy as a distinct model of adult learning. Synthesizes research from psychology, sociology, and adult education to contrast assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy, focusing on self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, and orientation to learning.	Adults differ from children in four predictable ways: they see themselves as increasingly self-directed, bring a larger and more diverse base of experience, become ready to learn when life roles require it, and prefer learning that has immediate application. These assumptions support instructional approaches that emphasize collaboration, experiential learning, problem-centered design, and opportunities for learners to diagnose their own needs. Knowles argues that adult learning is most effective when educators shift from transmission to facilitation, build supportive learning climates, and engage adults in planning, implementing, and assessing their learning.
Henschke, 2016	Historical analysis tracing the development of andragogy from its early origins in Europe to its expansion in the United States and worldwide. Reviews more than a century of documents, debates, and applications, with specific attention to adult basic education and literacy programs.	Andragogy has evolved across sixteen distinct eras, shaped by scholars such as Kapp, Lindeman, Knowles, Savicevic, and others. Key themes include the shift from pedagogy to learner-centered adult education, the role of self-directed learning, and the importance of trust, experience, and collaboration in adult learning environments. The review shows consistent use of andragogical principles across settings ranging from literacy programs to workforce development, higher education, health care, and international initiatives. Despite periods of debate over its research base, andragogy’s core assumptions and methods remain widely used and continue to influence adult education practice globally.
Kolb, 1984	Foundational text outlining experiential learning as a holistic, cyclical process in which learning emerges through the interaction of concrete experience, reflection, conceptualization, and active experimentation. Integrates earlier work from Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget to present a unified model of how individuals learn and develop through experience.	Kolb identifies experiential learning as a continuous, adaptive process driven by resolving tensions between action and reflection and between concrete experience and abstract thinking. Effective learning requires moving through all four stages of the cycle and engaging with real problems in context. The model shows that people have preferred learning styles but benefit from experiences that stretch them across the full cycle. The text emphasizes that learning involves transactions between the learner and the environment an
Hase & Kenyon, 2000	Concept paper introducing heutagogy, or self-determined learning, as an extension of andragogy. Synthesizes humanistic psychology, systems thinking, action learning, and capability development to propose a model in which learners determine what and how learning occurs. Highlights implications for higher education, vocational training, and distance learning.	Heutagogy positions learners as fully autonomous, reflecting a shift driven by rapid technological and workplace change. The authors argue that traditional pedagogical and even andragogical models remain too teacher-directed. Heutagogy emphasizes capability, double-loop learning, reflection, creativity, and flexible pathways in which learners negotiate goals, resources, and assessments. Effective implementation requires rethinking power relationships in education, designing environments that reduce threat, and creating structures that support learner-driven inquiry. The paper identifies distance education and work-based learning as areas where heutagogical practices can expand learner agency and prepare individuals for unpredictable, continuously changing environments.
Mezirow, 2006	Comprehensive summary of transformative learning theory tracing its origins, core concepts, and evolution. Distinguishes between instrumental and communicative learning, defines frames of reference, and explains how adults revise assumptions through critical reflection and discourse. Reviews critiques, extensions, and related theories that have shaped the field.	Transformative learning occurs when adults critically examine and revise problematic assumptions, making their frames of reference more inclusive, reflective, and open to change. The process often begins with a disorienting dilemma and involves phases such as self-examination, critical assessment of assumptions, exploring new roles, and reintegration. Mezirow emphasizes the role of rational discourse, critical self-reflection, and awareness of context in validating beliefs. The chapter acknowledges critiques regarding emotion, power, culture, and ideology, noting that extensions of the theory incorporate Jungian psychology, developmental perspectives, schema theory, and Freirean social action. Transformative learning is presented as a metacognitive process central to adult development and democratic participation.
Murphy, Wang, Bienkowski, & Bhanot, 2024	Multi-state study examining how five learning technology products are implemented in adult basic education programs. Researchers documented intended use, provided educator training, and collected pre- and post-assessments from learners across 14 program sites to understand both effectiveness and implementation challenges.	Impact on learning varied widely across products and sites. Math gains were generally slightly larger than reading gains, with one product showing moderate to large positive effects in a single site and another showing moderate to large negative effects in a different site. Overall, results suggest that learning technologies can support skill development but are highly sensitive to context, training, and implementation quality. The authors highlight the need for clearer instructional integration, stronger support for educators, and more rigorous research to identify conditions under which digital platforms improve outcomes for adult learners.
Bin Mubayrik, 2020	Systematic review of 22 peer-reviewed studies published between 2014 and 2019 examining new trends in formative and summative evaluation for adult learners, including those in distance and higher education settings. The article analyzes how assessment approaches support learning, the types of tools being used, and the outcomes reported across diverse fields and countries.	Across studies, formative evaluation practices such as classroom assessment techniques, peer review, reflective tasks, online quizzes, and e-portfolios consistently improved adult learners’ understanding, motivation, self-regulation, participation, and assessment performance. Effective formative assessment relied on timely feedback and alignment with learning needs. Summative assessments were still important for accountability but benefited from integration with ongoing feedback and learner-centered evaluation. The review highlights trends such as increased use of technology-enhanced assessments, greater emphasis on learning-oriented assessment, and the need for clearer criteria when measuring complex skills like creativity. One drawback noted was the time burden of peer assessment. Overall, the review recommends broader adoption of varied pre- and post-assessment tools to strengthen learning quality and adult learners’ confidence.
Wang, Sainz, Rose, & Alfred, 2024	Qualitative study examining how adult education and literacy (AEL) program directors in Texas perceive technology integration in their programs. Researchers conducted 15 semi-structured interviews across urban and rural sites to identify factors that support or hinder the adoption of digital tools, blended learning, and digital literacy instruction.	Directors identified four contributors to successful technology integration: access to devices and stable internet, embedding digital literacy skills into instruction, ongoing professional development, and reliable IT support. Three major barriers were also reported: limited or outdated technology, inconsistent internet access (particularly in rural areas), the cost of PD, and part-time instructors’ limited time and confidence with technology. Programs with dedicated tech-skilled staff or strong partnerships saw more consistent integration. Findings point to the need for sustained funding, flexible PD, and stronger support structures to help instructors build skills and incorporate technology in ways that expand learning opportunities for adults.
Gudoniene et al., 2025	Systematic review of 27 studies on hybrid teaching and learning in higher education published between 2014 and 2023. Examines pedagogical frameworks, strategies for student engagement, technology integration, academic development, assessment practices, and impacts on learning outcomes to identify effective models and persistent challenges.	Across studies, hybrid learning can support flexibility, engagement, and positive learning outcomes, but effectiveness depends heavily on instructional design, faculty preparation, and technology reliability. Blended and flipped models, active learning, and structured peer interaction were associated with improved participation. Common challenges included technical disruptions, workload concerns, uneven access to devices and internet, and limited guidance on effective hybrid pedagogy. Teachers reported needing stronger training in digital tools and facilitation strategies. Formative assessments, clear expectations, and timely feedback supported learner progress. Overall, hybrid models show promise but require robust infrastructure, ongoing professional development, and intentional design to ensure equitable and engaging learning experiences.
Pan, Sana, Samani, Cooke, & Kim, 2020	Survey study conducted across three large public universities to examine how undergraduates and instructors think about errors during learning. Explores practices, attitudes, and beliefs about generating errors, studying them, and using error-focused techniques such as pretesting and productive failure.	Students commonly avoided making errors during learning, even though many reviewed and analyzed mistakes after they occurred. Instructors were generally more open to errors as part of learning but varied widely in whether they provided structured opportunities for productive error generation. Both groups showed an ambivalent pattern: they tried to prevent errors yet valued learning from them when they happened. The authors note that this mindset limits full use of evidence-based practices like pretesting and productive failure, which rely on errorful generation to strengthen understanding and memory.
Nguyen, Soldner, & Parsons, 2021	Policy brief outlining why competency-based education (CBE) programs require new progress measures that reflect flexible pacing and competency attainment rather than seat time. Reviews limitations of traditional metrics and proposes approaches institutions can use to track student momentum, improve program design, and inform statewide data systems.	Traditional progress indicators tied to academic terms fail to capture how students advance in CBE programs. The brief identifies four measures better suited to CBE: persistence over time, pace of learning, completion of a defined number of competencies, and continuous engagement. Institutions are encouraged to track student activity in detail, establish clear expectations for study effort, and align reporting with California’s Cradle-to-Career Data System. These practices can help faculty intervene earlier, support equity analysis, and benchmark performance as CBE expands across the state.
Shatila, 2024	Study of adult learners enrolled in fully online postsecondary programs, examining how social connectedness, role identity, and stress relate to academic perseverance. Surveys from 254 online adult learners explored peer connection, competing priorities, and perceived effects on academic outcomes.	Participants reported confidence in managing school alongside work and caregiving, but many also described significant stress linked to competing roles. Strong positive correlations emerged between peer connection and perceived academic benefits: learners who had someone to talk with about coursework or life outside of school were more likely to report better academic outcomes and stronger motivation to persist. Many students valued peer relationships but lacked structured opportunities to connect in online programs. Open-ended comments highlighted that peer support helped reduce isolation and reinforced commitment to finishing. Results suggest that intentional strategies to foster connection in online programs may help counter stress and strengthen retention for adult learners balancing multiple responsibilities.
Weber-Wulff et al., 2023	Large-scale evaluation of 14 AI-generated text detection tools using 54 controlled test documents written by humans, translated by machines, generated by ChatGPT, manually edited, or paraphrased by AI. Assesses accuracy, error types, and usability to determine whether these tools can reliably distinguish human and AI-generated writing in academic contexts.	Across all tools, accuracy was low, with none exceeding roughly 80 percent and most performing far worse. Tools were more likely to misclassify AI-generated text as human than to produce false accusations, meaning students who use AI can often avoid detection. Accuracy dropped sharply when texts were machine-translated, lightly edited by humans, or paraphrased by AI. Paraphrasing was especially problematic, with many tools failing to detect any AI involvement. The authors conclude that current detectors are neither reliable nor suitable as evidence for academic misconduct. They recommend shifting from detection to prevention through assessment design, instructor training, and clear guidance on ethical AI use.
Yusuf, Pervin, Román-González, & Md Noor, 2024	Systematic mapping review of 407 publications on generative AI in education and research drawn from major databases. Categorizes publication types, educational levels, disciplines, and application areas, and identifies eight major thematic areas including applications, impacts, ethics, adoption, and user perspectives.	Most studies focus on how GenAI can enhance instruction, support writing and productivity, strengthen professional skill development, or enable specialized training. Ethical concerns, risks, and adoption barriers are widely discussed, especially around bias, transparency, data privacy, and academic integrity. Research remains uneven, with limited empirical studies, minimal work in K–12 settings, and little exploration of cultural perspectives or long-term impacts. The review calls for more rigorous experimental research, broader attention to equity and ethics, and deeper investigation of institutional readiness and learner experiences.

Research Findings

Access, Awareness, and Participation

Awareness of adult education opportunities continues to be a barrier for many learners. A national survey of adults with low literacy found that 80 percent were unaware of available programs, though most expressed interest once informed (Condon, Chattin, Green, Goodman, & Cacicio, 2025). Learners highlighted cost, flexibility, and supportive teachers as priorities when considering enrollment. Public polling confirms strong demand for digital upskilling, with most voters supporting guaranteed access to lifelong digital training (National Skills Coalition, 2024).

Technology and infrastructure remain uneven. Barriers include broadband access, device availability, and training gaps, particularly in rural and underserved communities (Digital Promise, 2022; JFF, World Education, & Safal Partners, 2022). Immigrant families demonstrate diverse digital practices such as multilingual communication and intergenerational learning, which can serve as assets in program design (Riggs & Cherewka, 2024).

Digital Skills and Literacy

Digital literacy is increasingly recognized as fundamental for participation in work, education, and civic life (Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy & Digital Promise, 2022). Studies show that short, explicit lessons improve foundational skills and confidence for English learners, with both learners and teachers rating the instruction relevant and effective (Hauge, Durgunoğlu, & Stewart, 2024).

Practice Engagement Theory continues to be supported: adults who regularly use reading or numeracy in daily life demonstrate measurable proficiency gains over time (Reder, Gauly, & Lechner, 2020). Learners with disabilities report lower digital literacy levels, but using digital skills at work or home predicts stronger outcomes, underscoring the importance of embedding practice in authentic contexts (Patterson, 2022).

National PIAAC data show that nearly one third of U.S. workers have limited or no digital skills, with gaps present across every major industry, including roles that already require regular computer use. Many low-skill workers supervise others, amplifying the impact of digital skill gaps on productivity and workplace communication (Bergson-Shilcock, 2020).

Professional Development and Educator Capacity

Effective professional development (PD) integrates content focus, active learning, collaboration, coaching, feedback, and sustained engagement. Programs combining these features report the strongest outcomes (Darling-Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner, 2017). Online PD can be equally or more effective than face-to-face when it offers rigorous content, opportunities for mastery, and user-friendly platforms (Rabbitt, Finegan, & Kellogg, 2019).

Adult educators are often expected to act as instructional designers. Frameworks such as TPACK, SAMR, and Triple E can help teachers evaluate digital tools, while models like EdTech Maker Space build PD capacity through collaborative resource creation (Vanek, 2022; Vanek, Maddrell, Goumas, & Riggs, 2023). Modules designed with Universal Design for Learning principles reduce barriers for part-time and geographically dispersed instructors (Bastoni, Pérez, & Sell, 2024).

Foundational adult learning theories reinforce PD models that emphasize autonomy, relevance, collaboration, and reflection. Andragogy highlights self-directed learning and immediate applicability (Knowles, 1980; Henschke, 2016).

Experiential learning research shows that educators benefit when PD cycles include concrete practice, reflection, experimentation, and conceptualization (Kolb, 1984).

Heutagogy suggests that educators need opportunities to build capability and confidence through flexible, learner-driven PD pathways (Hase & Kenyon, 2000).

Transformative learning research underscores the role of critical reflection and discourse in shifting instructional beliefs and building long-term pedagogical capacity (Mezirow, 2006).

AI in Teaching and Learning

Research and reports highlight both opportunities and risks of artificial intelligence (AI). AI tools are already used for tutoring, feedback, and administrative support, but raise concerns of bias, privacy, and transparency (U.S. Department of Education, 2023; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2023). Guidance emphasizes principles of critical engagement, human oversight, and support options to prevent inequities (White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2022; California Community Colleges Board of Governors, 2024).

Educators experimenting with AI report benefits such as reduced workload, rapid content generation, and new opportunities for personalized learning. However, risks include misinformation, narrow pedagogical defaults, plagiarism, and overreliance (van den Berg & du Plessis, 2023; Lee, Kumar, & Zhao, 2023). Scoping reviews call for accessible AI literacy opportunities that emphasize applied use and ethics rather than advanced coding (Laupichler, Aster, Schirch, & Raupach, 2022).

Empirical studies show that AI-assisted scoring can align closely with instructor judgments while reducing costs, provided instructor oversight is maintained (Cavanaugh, Humphrey, & Pullen, 2024). Surveys of faculty and staff underscore the importance of professional development, infrastructure, and clear policies for responsible adoption (Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI, 2025).

Evaluations of AI-text detectors show that these tools frequently misidentify both human and AI writing, especially when text is translated, lightly edited, or paraphrased by AI. This raises concerns about relying on automated detection for academic integrity decisions (Weber-Wulff et al., 2023).

A systematic mapping review of over 400 GenAI studies indicates that most research focuses on potential applications rather than empirical evidence, with notable gaps in equity, cultural perspectives, and K–12 contexts (Yusuf, Pervin, Román-González, & Md Noor, 2024).

Credentials and Recognition

Micro-credentials and badges provide portable ways to validate specific competencies. They are valued for documenting skills not captured by traditional degrees, especially in rural or underserved communities (Digital Promise, 2022). Surveys show that employees are generally more positive than employers, though employer interest grows when the benefits and verification of micro-credentials are explained (Fong, Janzow, & Peck, 2016).

Barriers to adoption include limited employer familiarity, uneven recognition, and gaps in digital infrastructure. Findings suggest that micro-credentials hold promise for expanding career pathways when supported with clear communication, portability, and employer engagement (Digital Promise, 2022; Fong, Janzow, & Peck, 2016).

Modalities and Flexible Learning

Adults choose learning formats based on life circumstances. A large survey found that over half of adult learners preferred in-person classes, while hybrid and online options were chosen by those balancing childcare, work, or career advancement goals (Gardner, Maietta, Gardner, & Perkins, 2022).

Flexible models such as HyFlex allow learners to select participation modes (in person or online) while achieving equivalent outcomes. Successful implementation requires planning for technology access, staff preparation, and learner support (Simpson, Vanek, & Rosen, 2022). Extended reality (XR) technologies can increase engagement, but costs and technical demands remain barriers to widespread adoption (Meccawy, 2022).

Systematic reviews of hybrid instruction show that well-designed blended models can improve engagement, but success depends on technology reliability, sustained PD, and clear pedagogical structures (Gudoniene et al., 2025).

Equity and Inclusion

Equity remains a central concern in digital learning. Systematic reviews and state-level reports highlight persistent gaps in access for rural communities, learners with disabilities, and communities of color (Ramsden, Colbran, Christopher, & Edwards, 2022; Graber, Zuschlag, Polzin, & Van Vliet, 2023). Adult learners continue to report cost perceptions, scheduling conflicts, and stigma as barriers to participation (Condon, Chattin, Green, Goodman, & Cacicio, 2025).

Reports emphasize the need to design programs that build on learners’ assets and everyday practices, while also ensuring safeguards around privacy, transparency, and accountability in digital systems (Riggs & Cherewka, 2024; White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2022). Findings reinforce that digital equity involves not only devices and broadband, but also inclusive design, confidence-building, and opportunities for authentic engagement.

Studies of online adult learners show that social connection and peer support significantly reduce stress and strengthen persistence, yet many programs provide limited structured opportunities for connection (Shatila, 2024).

Recommendations

Center equity, access, and learner choice in program design

• Expand device lending, broadband support, and flexible scheduling so adults can participate consistently across work and caregiving commitments. Pair flexible or hybrid options with clear supports so each mode leads to comparable outcomes (Simpson, Vanek, & Rosen, 2022; Graber, Zuschlag, Polzin, & Van Vliet, 2023).
• Address participation barriers such as transportation, childcare, cost perceptions, stigma by integrating learner supports and community partnerships into recruitment and persistence strategies (Graber et al., 2023).
• Use community input and local labor-market context to prioritize offerings, with a focus on accessible on-ramps for adults without foundational digital skills (Bocher, 2023; National Skills Coalition, 2024).
• Use national and regional evidence on digital skill gaps to prioritize outreach to workers across industries, including supervisors and frontline staff whose roles increasingly require digital tools. Coordinate with employers to link programs to workplace needs and to co-design digital upskilling opportunities (Bergson-Shilcock, 2020; National Skills Coalition, 2024).
• In online and hybrid programs, intentionally build opportunities for peer connection and social support, such as cohort models, discussion spaces, or peer mentoring. These structures can reduce isolation and stress and strengthen persistence for adults balancing multiple responsibilities (Shatila, 2024).

Make digital skills explicit and embedded across instruction

• Integrate digital skills into core instruction with structured time-in-platform, instructor facilitation, and routine application to authentic tasks. Effectiveness improves when tools are taught as part of the course, not as optional extras (Murphy, Wang, Bienkowski, & Bhanot, 2024).
• Use short, explicit lessons to build foundational digital skills for English learners and others beginning their digital journey. Even brief instruction can increase accuracy, speed, and confidence (Hauge, Durgunoğlu, & Stewart, 2024).
• Leverage asset-based approaches that recognize existing practices (messaging apps, multilingual communication, digital storytelling) and connect course work to daily life and work (Riggs & Cherewka, 2024; Riggs, 2022).

Use evidence-based professional learning to build staff capacity

• Design educator PD that reflects well-established quality features: content focus, active learning, collaboration, modeling, coaching, feedback, and sustained duration (Darling-Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner, 2017).
• For online or blended PD, apply the “quality drivers” that increase transfer to practice: rigorous content, active and mastery-based learning, expert support, and feedback cycles (Rabbitt, Finegan, & Kellogg, 2019; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).
• Provide structured time and coaching for part-time faculty and new instructors, with practical supports for technology selection, implementation, and troubleshooting (Wang, Rose, & Alfred, 2024).
• Align PD with core principles of adult learning by giving educators voice in goals, building on their experience, and organizing learning around authentic instructional problems. Use cycles of trying strategies, reflecting, and refining to mirror experiential and transformative learning processes (Knowles, 1980; Kolb, 1984; Mezirow, 2006; Henschke, 2016).
• Use frameworks such as TPACK, SAMR, and Triple E to scaffold technology-integration decisions and focus discussion on alignment, learner engagement, and impact. Collaborative design models that encourage peer feedback, formative evaluation, and co-creation of resources can expand educators’ pedagogical design capacity over time (Vanek, 2022; Vanek, Maddrell, Goumas, & Riggs, 2023).
• Provide pathways for more self-determined learning in PD, where educators can select focus areas, experiment with tools, and document capability growth, particularly in fast-changing areas like digital and AI tools (Hase & Kenyon, 2000).

Adopt human-centered, responsible approaches to AI

• Establish program-level guardrails before adopting AI: human in the loop for consequential decisions, clear purposes and use cases, transparent communication with learners, and routine monitoring for bias and error (U.S. Department of Education, 2023; White House OSTP, 2022).
• Prioritize educator readiness and AI literacy so instructors can evaluate tools, set expectations, and teach with and about AI in ways that advance equity (Gillani, Eynon, Chiabaut, & Finkel, 2023; Laupichler, Aster, Schirch, & Raupach, 2022).
• When using AI to extend feedback or automate routine tasks, maintain instructor oversight and review processes to protect quality and fairness (Cavanaugh, Humphrey, & Pullen, 2024; U.S. Department of Education, 2023).
• Avoid relying on AI-text detection tools as primary evidence for academic misconduct or policy violations. Instead, design assessments that require process artifacts, reflection, and authentic performance, and give explicit guidance on when and how AI use is acceptable (Weber-Wulff et al., 2023).
• Pilot GenAI tools in small, well-scoped use cases, documenting impacts on different learner groups and gathering feedback on usability, equity, and cultural considerations before scaling. Treat these pilots as opportunities to refine policies and instructional practices rather than as purely technical adoptions (Yusuf, Pervin, Román-González, & Md Noor, 2024).

Align assessment and credentials to authentic performance

• Use high-quality micro-credentials and other performance-based assessments to document competencies with evidence of practice. Provide orientation for educators, employers, and learners so credentials are understood and valued (Digital Promise, 2022).
• Where appropriate, consider AI-assisted scoring for rubric-based assignments to manage scale and timeliness, with calibration and periodic human review to ensure reliability and equity (Cavanaugh et al., 2024).
• Pair performance-based assessments with varied, low-stakes formative activities such as practice quizzes, peer review, and reflective tasks so learners can analyze and learn from errors before high-stakes evaluations. Provide timely, specific feedback and clear criteria, especially when peer assessment is used (Bin Mubayrik, 2020; Pan, Sana, Samani, Cooke, & Kim, 2020).

Choose technologies that are feasible to implement and sustain

• Select tools and platforms that match staff capacity and budget, with attention to onboarding, compatibility, accessibility, and end-user support. Pilot first, gather usage data, and scale only when core conditions are met (Murphy et al., 2024; Wang, Rose, & Alfred, 2024).
• Treat immersive or emerging technologies as optional enhancements. Adopt only when aligned to clear learning goals and when the authoring burden and cost are manageable (Meccawy, 2022).
• Plan for implementation supports such as role-specific training, time for course redesign, and readily available technical assistance. Studies of digital products and hybrid learning show that outcomes vary widely across sites and depend heavily on local infrastructure, faculty preparation, and support structures (Murphy et al., 2024; Gudoniene et al., 2025).

Build continuous improvement habits using simple data

• Track a small set of indicators across courses: access and attendance by mode, time on task in tools, assignment completion, and mastery evidence. Use these data in team routines to refine pacing, supports, and platform use (Murphy et al., 2024).
• Combine program metrics with educator and learner feedback to understand what is working for different groups and adjust quickly (Rabbitt et al., 2019; Gillani et al., 2023).
• In competency-based or modular programs, track indicators such as pace of learning, persistence over time, and competencies completed, in addition to course-level outcomes, so staff can identify where learners stall and intervene early (Nguyen, Soldner, & Parsons, 2021).

Communicate value and expand pathways to participation

• Use clear messaging about program options, supports, and outcomes, and partner with employers, libraries, community organizations, and public agencies to increase awareness and reduce stigma (Graber et al., 2023).
• Connect coursework to stackable credentials and job-relevant skills so adults can see near-term benefits and longer-term pathways (Digital Promise, 2022; Bocher, 2023).
• Highlight how programs build digital confidence and resilience for a wide range of occupations, using examples from sectors such as manufacturing, retail, health care, and transportation so prospective learners can see relevance to their own work and community contexts (Bergson-Shilcock, 2020; National Skills Coalition, 2024).

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